Sunday, May 31, 2015

Reasons for Establishing the Empire

Context:The Senate declared Napoleon Bonaparte supreme Emperor of France. At his Coronation, the Pope was present, but Napoleon crowned himself as Emperor asserting that the Pope did not have power over him. The piece is an address to the Senate recalling the reasons for establishing an empire in place of a Consulate.
 
Author Bio: Napoléon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its associated wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815.

Summary: The Document begins by stating how the State of France is strong. He then recalls the state of France prior to his power, in civil war and Anarchy. The Senate was then thanked for its support. He then talked about reform in the Government. He then calls his name the most unquestioned of titles. He concludes by swearing to Senate that if attacked, he will fight back.

Key Quotation: “The oath of Napoleon shall be forever the terror of the enemies of France”

Virtue and Terror

Author Bio: Maximilien Robespierre was a lawyer and politician. He was one of the most known and influential figures of the French Revolution. He was a member of the Estates General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobins Club. Robespierre wished a republic would be established, the death penalty and slavery abolished and advocated for universal suffrage and equality. He was known as "the Incorruptible" but also known as a "bloodthirsty dictator" by his enemies and was also a member of the Public Committee for Safety during the Reign of Terror.


Context: This speech was given to the Convention on February 5, 1794. This was during the Reign of Terror that starred the guillotine. During the Terror, anyway suspected of being against the revolutionists were seen as enemies of France were sentenced to death. Robespierre uses this speech as justification for that type of barbarity.


Summary: Robespierre begins his speech by explaining what France and its people are trying to achieve: a prosperous republic of fully equally citizens who can respect their country without knowing horrors like they are experiencing now. He then explains the problems of France, the way everything good is substituted for something corrupt like morality for egoism, the rule of reason for the tyranny of custom and contempt of vice for contempt of misfortune. The people want to stop this terror and these vices and fulfill the duties of nature. He proclaims that only a republican or democratic type of government can achieve these great desires. Robespierre believes that the fundamental principle of a government of these types is virtue. He then goes on to say that in times of revolution, terror is necessary to inflict justice and restore order. He believes that to once again reach a virtuous government one must inflict terror to get rid of those who are disrupting order.


Key Quotation:
"If the strength of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the strength of popular government in revolution is both virtue and terror; terror without virtue is disastrous, virtue without terror is powerless."
"Subdue the enemies of liberty through terror and you will right as founder of the Republic."

The Mortal God

Author: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an english philosopher that made huge jumps in the thinkings about absolutism. He is also noted for ideas of liberal thought and these became the foundation for modern philosophy and political science. Hobbes was not only revolutionary in the thoughts about humanity and government, but he was also a historian, mathematician, theologian and physicist. He is best noted for his book Leviathan which this excerpt comes from.

Speaker: See above.

Context: Leviathan was written during the English Civil War and in response to the conflict the book demonstrates a need for a strong central authority that would hinder evil discord and civil war, leading him to desire a government of an absolutist monarchy.

Summary:  Hobbes opens by commenting on the nature of man; he believes that nature has made man equal and even though they have different talents when they are all together it does not really make a difference and all men have equal ability. He then laments on the three causes of quarrel: competition, insecurity and glory. Without a common power to make all men equal, men live in a time of war consisting of every man against every man. In this state there is no room for progress and the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". He then comes to his conclusion that the only solution to these problems is essentially an absolutist monarch who held sovereignty over his subjects. He also references the social contract theory where man gives up his rights to the government in hopes that the government will protect those rights.

Key Quotation: 
  • "I authorize and give up my right of governing myself, to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition  that you give up your right To him, and authorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person , is called, a commonwealth...This is the generation of the great Leviathan, or rather, to speak more reverently  of that mortal god, to which we own under the immortal God, our peace and defense."
  • "And...this person, is called sovereign, and said to have sovereign power; and everyone besides, his subject."

Friday, May 29, 2015

The Spirit of the Laws by Baron de Montesquieu

Author: The author of The Spirit of the Laws is Baron de Montesquieu. Montesquieu is known for questioning contemporary society as well as his beliefs in the separation of powers (Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branches). He believed in shared power in the government in order to prevent tyrannical rulers. He best known work is The Spirit of the Laws, which was written in 1748.

Speaker: See Above

Date/ Context: In 1748, Louis XIV reign was coming to an end. He had built the palace Versailles to distract the nobles from the corruption of his reign. One noble however, Montesquieu, was not fooled by the palace. Montesquieu often wrote about the corruption and tyranny of Louis XIV’s rule. This primary document, The Spirit of the Laws, is his most well known work on the separation of powers and the downfalls of an absolutist ruler. This primary document was so controversial it was banned by the pope.

Summary: This primary document begins by explaining that if the legislative branch, who makes the laws, and the executive branch, who enforce the laws, are controlled by the same person liberty for the people can not be achieved. In addition, Montesquieu states that if all three branches of government, the executive, legislative, and judicial branch are ruled by the same person liberty can not be achieved. The document then goes on to state that in France, there is no liberty because France is ruled by an absolute ruler, which Montesquieu refers to as despotic. Overall, Montesquieu is trying to express that liberty and the rights of citizens can only be preserved through democracy and separated powers and not through an absolute ruler.
Key Quotes:
“When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty…”
“Again there is no liberty if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers.”

"The Fall of the Bastille"

Author: Although there is no technical author of this document assumptions can still be made. The footnotes tell us that the document is made from an accumulation of eyewitness accounts from contemporaries of the revolution. From this, we can infer that the authors were mostly nobles, since the lower classes were mostly illiterate. In addition, many of the information provided is from the point of view of the people behind the gates of the Bastille, which supports the fact that it is a noble supporting Louis XVI. It is possible that the account is from a soldier, however mostly were slaughtered in the initial storming.

Data/Context: The Bastille was a prison for political opposers of the Old Regime. Therefore, it served as a symbol for the monarchical despotism of France. However, the Bastille was raided by a mob of nearly 200,000 people in an effort to show Louis XVI their strength. Once inside, the mob freed the remaining prisoners and grabbed all firearms within the grounds. Then, the officers and military inside were slaughtered unless they defected from the regime and joined the people. The event, which happened on July 14, 1789, is considered to be the catalyst for the French Revolution as a whole.

Summary: The people of France were upon the Bastille. The soldiers inside could either commit a murder-suicide with explosives, or allow the people to enter. Upon being promised a safe imprisonment, they opened the gates and let down the bridge. However, the enraged people murdered and humiliated the soldiers despite the efforts of those who promised them safety. Afterwards, the Marquis de Liancourt informed the King of the Bastille's whereabouts, where the recognition of the revolution began.

Key Quote: "'It is then a revolt.' 'No sire,' replied the duke. 'It is a revolution.'"

politics and scripture

author bio:Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet was a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a masterly French stylist.

Date/Context: (1679)- Monarchical government is the best form.

summary: is a work of political theory prepared by Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet as part of his duties as tutor for Louis XIV's heir apparentLouis, le Grand Dauphin. It is one of the purest expressions of the branch ofpolitical absolutism which historians have labeled "Divine Right Absolute Monarchy."

Key Quote: Kings Should respect their powers and only employ them for the general good.

A Citizen devoted to the republic

Author Bio: Napoléon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its associated wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815.

Date/Context: (November 10,1799) I found division among all authorities , and agreement upon one point, namely, the constitution was half destroyed..

Summary: This is basically a lot of napoleon gloating and describing what he has accomplished.

Key quote: All parties came to me, confined to me their designs, disclose their secrets and request my support 

The people of the fatherland

Author bio: Johann Gottlieb Fichte was a German philosopher. He was one of the founding figures of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant.

Date/Context: 1807-1808, like italy, Germany did not achieve unification until 1871. But there were those who who provided the philosophical and idealistic foundation for later policies that would prove more practical.  

Summary: Fichte asserts that their oldest common ancestors set themselves bravely in opposition to the worldwide rule of the Romans, and believes that German's now faced with Napoleonic rule should do the same. Fichte asks, why would the German's just give up everything their ancestors fought for and succumb to the Napoleon and his tyrannical rule. He maintains that Germans should fight to be Germans, not the subjects of other, more powerful nations.

Key Quote: a true German could wish to live only to and to remain a German, and to have his sons the same.

The Wealth of Nations

Author Bio: Adam Smith (1723-1790), also know as the Father of modern economics, was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and a key figure during the Enlightenment period. He attended the University of Glasgow, where he studied social philosophy; He eventually became a Professor for the same university. He is known for developing the idea of a free market economy. One of his most famous works, "The Wealth of Nations" is considered one of the first works about economics.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: This document was created in 1776. It focuses on how we as humans participate in trader, interactions with others, and trade with other nations. This document is considered the original works on economics. 

Summary: 

  • Human Nature and the Division of Labor
    • Man, unlike other animal species, will always need assistance/interaction with one another.Usually in the animal kingdom, species become completely independent when they are grown. For Man, he shall rely on the help from his fellow being, However, he should never expect it. When we are born, we are all basically the same. Technically in the early stages of our childhood, we do not differentiate from others. It is not until we choose a specific occupation that we begin to become different. We develop different experiences and receive specific education.
  • The Invisible Hand**
    • When it is our goal to promote ourselves, we actually promote our society. We try to make something out of ourselves, and in doing so, we basically make our nation better, economically. Though we are only trying to watch out for ourselves, we are actually helping the "revenue" of our society.
  • Unreasonableness of Restraints**
    • Trade among other countries should happen peacefully without conflict. However, this act of buying and selling creates so much antipathy; Feared to be the nature of human affairs. In many European countries such as Great Britain, they focus on trying to withhold trade from foreign manufacturers. This restraint favors the body of the people. 
Key Quotations:
  • "The difference of natural talents in different men is, in reality, much less than we are aware of..."
  • "...every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows hoe much he is promoting it."
  • "Commerce, which ought naturally to be, amongst nations, as among individuals, a bond of union and friendship, has become the most fertile source of discord and animosity.."

Thursday, May 28, 2015

The Blank State of the Mind

Author Bio: Born in 1632 and died in 1704, John Locke is considered one of the most important individuals during the Scientific Revolution. He attended University at Oxford, and eventually became a Physician. He was very interested in Human interaction; how people create them and how they are handled. His works and philosophies helped with the inspiration of the American and French Revolutions.

Speaker: See Above.

Date/Context: The time period of this document is during the years of Enlightenment/Scientific Revolution. Specifically in 1690, this document focuses on the human mind molds life experiences. Another thing discussed is if we are born with opinions/ideas, or if we create them as we age.

Summary: One of his most well know works, this document focuses on the question: Are children born with any innate ideas that have been inherited from parents, or are all ideas products of associations with society? Many men believe that when we are born, our minds have already created ideas about may things. But for others, our minds are blank canvases; no characters or any ideas. So how do we paint our canvas and create a picture? Experience. That is how we form our knowledge. External objects (experiences from life), are what mold and nourish the mind. If we placed a child where they were to never experience anything but just a world of black and white, they would not see the spectrum of color that the world provides to us. 

Key Quotations:

  • "It is established opinion among some men, that there are in the understanding certain innate principles, some primary notions, characters, as it were stamped upon the mind of man, which the soul receives in its very first being and brings into the world with it. 
  • "External objects furnish the mind with the ideas of sensible qualities, which are all those different perceptions they produce in us.
  • "...if a child were kept in a place where he never saw any other but black and white till he were a man, he would have no more ideas of scarlet or green that he that from his childhood never tasted an oyster r a pineapple has of those particular relishes..."

Wednesday, May 27, 2015

What is Enlightenment?

Author: Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality.

Context:  Written in 1784, although Kant lived in Germany he was no doubt influenced by the Revolution in France.

Summary:  Seeks to "accept the rationalism of the Enlightenment while still preserving a belief in human freedom."  This particular document concisely describes the goals and ideas of the Enlightenment.

Quote: "Dare to Know! Have courage to use your own reason!”

Luxury, Debauchery, and Lavish Expenditures

Luxury, Debauchery, and Lavish Expenditures (II, 105)

Author Bio: “Marquis de Ferrieres was a conservative noble, yet still a severe critic of the monarchy , the nobility, and revolutionaries.

Date/Context: This piece is in reference to the clergy of the time.

Summary:
De Ferrieres begins the document by mentioning that there were dioceses of all sizes, some quite large, and some with only fifteen families. He complains some priests that did their jobs properly received very little pay, and those who didn’t do much were overpaid. The king was responsible for choosing the bishops, and they didn’t appoint bishops with the most credentials, but the ones of families with a greater influence. He describes his distaste for this idea by saying “What evils have not resulted from this!” He mentioned that the bishops incapable of doing their job somehow managed to stay in these positions and abused their powers. De Ferrieres ends the document with the statement that “the dioceses remained in the hands of obscure secretaries.”

Key Quotation: “...ecclesiastics who performed no function in the cult and who, residing elsewhere, carried away the revenue of these benefices, dissipating it in luxury, debauchery, and lavish expenditure.”

Tuesday, May 26, 2015

The Tennis Court Oath

Author Bio: No single person wrote the Tennis Court Oath, but it was signed by all but one (576/577) of those who were members of the Third Estate and who were locked out of the Estates-General on June 20, 1789. This men were likely biased in the fact that they were upper class men part of the French political system. They were likely upset with the current status of government, being that Louis XVI wanted to be the absolute ruler but they wanted to institute reforms and have influence as well as the king.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: From its inception, the Estates-General was in contention over organizational practices. To combat this, the Third Estate convened to form a new legislative body known as the National Assembly which was formed on June 17, 1789. Three days later, the members of this were locked out of their meeting place (albeit unintentionally) and so they marched to a tennis court to draft a new constitution for France; this would come to be one of the most important documents of the revolution.

Summary: The oath is rather short, but it conveys its meaning with the few words it presents. Essentially, it is split into two parts: (a) naming the extent of influence regarding the National Assembly and (b) stating the purpose of the aforementioned oath. The first part essentially states that the National Assembly was created to establish a constitution for the kingdom, to restore public order, and to maintain the monarchy. It cannot be stopped by anything and wherever its members are assembled there is the National Assembly. The second part of the oath states that this Assembly will not separate and will reassemble when necessary under the constitution of the king. Each member shall ratify this document with their signature. In hindsight, all but one of the 577 members of the Third Estate did indeed ratify it.

Key Quotations: "Decrees that all members of this Assembly shall immediately take a solemn oath not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and consolidated upon firm foundations..."

Monday, May 25, 2015

"On Universal Toleration"

Author Bio: Voltaire (1694-1778), a French philosopher, is considered to be the epitome of a philosopher of the Enlightenment. He wrote a myriad of literature, including histories, novels, drama, and satires. His writing style derives from his natural wit and his intellectual maturity. He strongly opposed organized religion and absolutism, but he promoted religious tolerance and the idea of "deism," which is the rejection of organized religion but he belief in the existence of God. He also traveled around western Europe and adopted the ideas of other philosophers and scientists at the time, such as John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton.

Speaker: See above

Data/Context: The document provided is from one of Voltaire's most famous works, Treatise on Toleration. The main focus of this literature is promotion of tolerance between religions. He especially targets the harsh fanaticism of the Jesuit Society and their superstitions around religion.

Summary: Voltaire starts out by stating the obvious: Christians ought to be able to tolerate one another. He basically compares us to ants and and satirically implies that it is wrong to say “my ant-hill is alone cherished by god.” His basic and most important message is that all men are brothers made by a Deity and we should all join together in peace, worship, and praise as opposed to hatred.

Key Quote: "May all men remember that they are brethren! May they alike abhor that tyranny which seeks to subject the freedom of the will, as they do the rapine which tears from the arms of industry the fruits of its peaceful labors!"

Saturday, May 23, 2015

"Utopian Socialism"

Author Bio: Robert Owen (1771 - 1858) - born in a lower class family as the son of a saddle maker; at eighteen years old, set up a cotton mill which became incredibly successful within the following decade; for his workers, he provided high wages, above-par working conditions, and free schooling for their children; still made a large profit; wished to incorporate these and other goals into governmental legislation; considered the father of English socialism.

Speaker: see above

Date/Context: This speech was giving at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in 1816 at the opening of an “Institution for the Formation of Character.” Due to the rapid expansion of mechanized industry brought on by the Industrial Revolution, one should note that Robert Owen’s speech might be a bit too reactionary. The new, oppressive conditions found in many factories were a fresh issue in people’s minds, and especially without any legislation to protect the workers, some people might have excessively rebelled against these factories and their owners.

Summary:
Every society has been founded on the following ideals. One, people can form their own character. This leads to religion as well as crime and punishment. It also leads to mutual hatred between people, groups, and nations. Two, people tend to lose their character while suffering through domestic life. This leads to half of all of humanity's crimes. Three, a majority of the population must live in poverty so that the rich minority can revel in their wealth. This leads to man fighting against one another as well as ignorance and vice. However, upon closer inspection of the facts, different truths are revealed. One, a person’s character is formed for them and not by them. Two, any character can be given to anyone. Three, people do not tend to lose their character. Four, everyone can produce more than they need which leads to a surplus in clothes, food, or whatever it is that that person creates. Five, everyone can be happy; there does not have to be a balance between a happy minority and distraught majority. Six, there exists a combination of the above principles that creates a society in which misery, poverty, and crime will be nearly abolished; everyone will live harmoniously in that society. Seven, a large portion of the principles that society has been run on up to this point are utterly incorrect. Eight, the change from the foundations of the past to the bright ideals of the future will not harm anyone. These are the points that society must change. Everyone has to play a part to fix the world. However, it is absolutely imperative that it happen gradually, for if it does not, the men who wish to fight against the change will injure the world further. The rest of society must change their perception to be able to fix their opinions of the world. To bring attention to their blindness will only irritate them, but this irritation must be soothed before the next step can be taken. After that however, reaching the goal will be swift due to the lack of obstacles presenting themselves. These thoughts and ideals have been offered unto humanity in the past. Even so, I believe that I have been the first one to combine them. Only by bringing them all together can they effectively create a new government in this time.

Key Quotations: “That any community may be arranged, on a due combination of the foregoing principles, in such a manner, as not only to withdraw vice, poverty, and, in a great degree, misery, from the world, but also to place every individual under circumstances in which he shall enjoy more permanent happiness than can be given to any individual under the principles which have hitherto regulated society.”

“That the change which would follow the abandonment of those erroneous maxims which bring misery into the world, and the adoption of principles of truth, unfolding a system which shall remove and for ever exclude that misery, may be effected without the slightest injury to any human being.”

The Efficiency of the Domestic Economy


Context: This was written in 1664 on trading.  It is a letter to the town Marseilles to encourage trade.  He wants to improve his own country's economy with the help of others. This type of letter was a very typical letter from Louis XIV.

Author: The author of this letter is King Louis XIV of France.  This was written towards the beginning of his reign which lasted from 1643 to 1716.  Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1643 until his death.

Summarize: This is a letter to the town of Marseilles from King Louis XIV to explain how their foreign and domestic commerce.  Marseilles is an essential trading center and is required to support the empire through commerce in exchange for security and governance. They decided to create a council that is devoted to commerce for the revival.  The plan was to set aside livres (French currency) to be used for manufactures and navigation each year to support the companies of the East and West Indies.  They are working to abolish tolls collected on rivers and give money to repair highways.  Merchants and sea traders will receive subsides for each ton of merchandise they import or export.  He explains that he wants the men of Marseilles to participate in commerce.

Quotation: "How advantageous it would be to this realm to reestablish its foreign and domestic commerce"

"Reality Check: An Update on the Political Rights of Women"

Author Bio: Committee of General Security (1792-1794) - part of the French Revolutionary government; controlled the police and the judicial system; administered the Reign of Terror.

Speaker: see above

Date/Context: The Committee was formed in 1792, so the document was presumably written around the same time. This was in the middle of the French Revolution while many French supported liberty and equality. Considering most of the proletariat were part of these uprisings, women took a stand on what they wished to have in the future government. The official government, otherwise known as the Convention, was presented with the issue of complaints about the planned dissolution of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women. However, this Committee was most likely composed of men considering their stance on this issues which will be revealed in the summary (which will be told in the same perspective that it was written in).

Summary: In its investigation, the Committee attempted to answer two questions: Can women play a significant role in government? and can they join governmental associations? The Committee answers no to both of these. In regards to the first question, running the government requires extensive knowledge and training. One needs to have the utmost attention to the issues at hand. The Committee looked into the past and saw very few examples to support the assertion that women can do any of the aforementioned tasks. In reference to the second question, governmental councils are meant to complete a multitude of tasks including tracking the enemy, keeping a watchful eye on citizens, and facilitating the understanding of governmental decisions through debates. Women cannot effectively complete these tasks due to the difference between men and women that nature has provided. These contrasting factors allow women to maintain the general order of society instead. Man contrasts with woman by being strong and robust; he is able to brave all of the dangers of the world and can take charge of people if need be. Nature has given women separate aspects to their personality. They can educate, prepare young children, and elevate their souls into adulthood. However, their most important job is to keep good care of the house. Women’s naturally modest nature prevents their morals from shining through, and morals constitute the foundation of the republic. All in all, women should have no say in government whatsoever.

Key Quotations:
“(1) Can women exercise political rights and take an active part in affairs of government? (2) Can they deliberate together in political associations or popular societies? With respect to these two questions, the Committee decided in the negative.”

“In general, women are ill suited for elevated thoughts and serious meditations...”

Friday, May 22, 2015

Science & The Bible

Author Bio: Galileo Galilei, was an Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician who played a major role in the scientific revolution during the Renaissance. He is widely heralded as one of the greatest scientists of all time.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: 1615, its like a page and a half so look on page 42

Summary:The intention of this letter was to accommodate Copernicanism with the doctrines of the Catholic Church. Galileo tried to use the ideas of Church Fathers and Doctors to show that the condemnation of Copernicanism would be inappropriate.

Key Quotes: From this i do not mean to infer that we need not have an extraordinary esteem for the passages of holy scripture.

"The Indifferent Nobility"

Author Bio: Louis Philippe Compte de Segur (1773 - 1850) - father supported the French revolution of the early 19th century; consistently supported the revolution himself; cousin, Louis XVIII retook the throne, however, they disagreed on many policies; supported by the liberal upper class; forced abdication of his cousin after attempts to instill a pre-revolutionary monarchy Louis Philippe was elected into position of King by the parliament; known as “King of the French”; promoted colonialism that ultimately failed; recognized Belgium as independent; a new mob appeared toward the end of his reign asking for voting rights for the middle class. The attempt at controlling them failed, and they ended up abdicating Louis Philippe and establishing the French Second Republic.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: This was presumably written from 1793-1830, for that was the time between him fleeing France and returning while being named king. Compte de Segur wrote about the nobility as one of the “Estates” or classes of French at the time. The First Estate was the clergy; the Second Estate was the nobles, who Compte de Segur writes about here; and the Third Estate was composed of everyone else in the kingdom. There was even fighting in the classes. Rights and privileges were determined on one’s class which upset many as they did not have a political voice. Compte de Segur’s flight from France creates a notably harsh tone towards the ruling and powerful classes of the nation, for he was threatened with death because of his dissent against them.

Summary: The royal families believe that their position is safe and intact. They continuously believe that they will not lose their power. However, they only ever discuss trivial matters and not of improving the lives of their citizens. They were easily manipulated by others, and now, they regard the shifting of power and influence as an unwarranted assault on their power.

Key Quotations: “The heads of the old noble families, believing themselves as unshakeable as the monarchy, slept without fear upon a volcano.”
“Indifferent to the real affairs of state as to their provinces, others by their own intendants...”

Thursday, May 21, 2015

The Social Contract: Rosseau (II 76)

Author Bio: Rousseau was born in 1712 and died in 1778. He was a political philosopher who Believed that man was good when in a state of nature. He was known for his controversial views on religion and questioned the assumption that the will of the majority is always correct.
The Social Contract (1762) that the state of nature was a primitive and in brutish condition, without law or morality, which humans deliberately left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation.

Date/Context: The Social Contract was written in 1762.

Summary: Rousseau states in the first sentence that man faces crisis when they have insufficient personal strength to deal with the problem. He also says that the “force and liberty of a man are the chief instruments of his preservation.” Rousseau asks the reader to consider thinking about a form of association where while still being part of a whole group, you can focus on your individual needs and property. He says that the social contract theory is the solution for this because it does not exist, at least as far as he can see. Rousseau encourages the reader to remember one single point if nothing else. It is “The total alienation of each associate, and all his rights, to the whole community.” His goal is to create a “moral, collective body” of persons. Rousseau believes that each man is entitled to a private will that is different from his will that comes from being a citizen. In order for the Social Contract Theory to be successful according to Rousseau, is to obey the general will because this guarantees his absolute personal independence.

Key Quotation:  “force and liberty of a man are the chief instruments of his preservation.” (76)

"Vanity Was His Ruin"

Author: The author of this primary document is the Duke of Saint-Simon. He was a soldier, diplomat and writer. Duke of Saint Simon was born in Paris and was part of the feudal nobility under Louis XIV. He often wrote about the life and accomplishments of Louis XIV.

Speaker: See Above

Date/ Context: Louis the XIV was the ruler of France during this time period. He named himself the ruler of France and dubbed himself the Sun King. While he was the absolute ruler of France he created the palace of Versailles to distract the nobles from the problems and corruption in France.  

Summary: “Vanity Was His Ruin” was written by Duke of Saint Simon who was a noble Louis XIV was trying to distract from the corruption of his rule. This primary document shows how Duke of Saint Simon was not pleased with the rule of Louis XIV and states many examples of his corruption. The Duke believes that Louis XIV was born a good king and was given power by God but his education and responsibility lacks. Finally, the Duke of Saint- Simon tells the reader how the King’s daily activities and diet was also flawed.  

Key Quotes:
“ God had sufficiently gifted him to enable him to be a good King; perhaps even a tolerably great King! All the evil came to him from elsewhere.”

On the Movement of the Earth

Author Bio:  Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) is mostly credited for being a polish astronomer and mathematician in the renaissance, however Copernicus is truly a renaissance man due to his well roundedness and contributions in other fields. In his time he was also a polyglot, polymath, physician, governor, diplomat and economist. He is most noted for his work On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres which he published at the end of his life. Many think that he might have done this because of the church’s strong refutation of science at this time. Case in point, if he published his life’s work on his death bed the church could not condemn him directly.


Speaker: See previous description above.


Date/Context: During this period, Europe was creeping out of the middle ages with an explosion of scientific discoveries. However, two fields collided when the church put the kibosh on a lot of scientific advances because it felt threatened. Copernicus directly resembles that strongly because he had to publish his life’s work on his death bed, but when his work finally made a presence in the scientific community, it catalyzed the Copernican Revolution. Scientist like Brahe and Kepler joined this revolution and made adjustment to the previous’ theories as time passed.


Summary: In this passage, Copernicus directly address that many of the people reading the book will disregard his researched information just because it rejects the reasoning of the church. Copernicus then goes on to explain his complex before writing this book. In summary, the research before his own was very inconsistent and inconclusive. The previous mathematicians refused to use the same principals and ask the same controlled questions. Therefore, Copernicus could not base any of his new research on their incorrect results. He then went on the research many philosophers to figure out if anyone contemplated the motion of our solar system. Through his readings, Copernicus discovered that a handful of individuals agreed that the Earth had motion. He then deduced that the other planets should have the same motion as the Earth.


Key Quotations:

  • I have at last discovered that, if the motions of the rest of the planets be brought into relation to the circles of the earth and be reckoned in proportion to the circles of each plaent

Wednesday, May 20, 2015

"Sybil"

Author Bio: Benjamin Disraeli was one of the foremost critics of working conditions in Britain. He was an English novelist and politician that served as Prime Minister from 1867 to 1868 and 1874 to 1880. The excerpt below comes from his most famous work, Sybil, which describes the brutal working and living conditions in the factory towns around the country.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: This excerpt was written in 1845, right as the Industrial Revolution in Britain was becoming prominent. During the early seventeenth century, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain. Basically, the increase in manufacturing efficiency allowed urban society in the country to flourish. With that came an influx of workers from rural areas that were taken advantage of by the ruthless industry owners. Until reformers like Disraeli came along, the conditions that these poor workers experienced were atrocious and dangerous. Disraeli's work is a major call for reform from this era.

Summary: The excerpt provides a description of a mine in England. Everyone emerges from the mine covered in soot and coal and dressed in harsh clothing meant for men. The language that the author hears is rough. The long days, which range from 12 to 16 hours in length, contradict the Society of Abolition of Negro Slavery's work. Children emerge last from the mine, and it is revealed that they not have the most strenuous work, but work the longest hours within a state of dark solidarity. Basically, the mine workers are enduring a punishment that was meant for criminals.

Key Quotations:
"See, too, these emerge from the bowels of the earth! Infants of four and five years of age, many of them girls, pretty and still soft and timid; entrusted with the fulfillment of responsible duties..."

A Vindication of the Rights of Women

Author Bio: Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an English writer, philosopher, and women's rights activist. Although her most famous work remains A Vindication of the Rights of Women, written in 1792, she was still prolific in other areas of literature as well, writing novels, treatises, cookbooks, children's books, and even a history of the French Revolution. After giving birth to her first child out of wedlock, Wollstonecraft married philosopher William Goodwin, to whom she birthed a second child, Mary Shelley; Shelley would go on to write one of the most well-known and well-respected novels of the nineteenth century, Frankenstein. Wollstonecraft died ten days after Shelley's birth and was largely forgotten until the emergence of the feminist movement at the turn of the twentieth century. As a woman herself, Wollstonecraft's gender no doubt fueled her positions. Her femininity did not hinder her progress, but rather catalyzed it. She not only crafted a revolutionary viewpoint that viewed females as equal to men but created one to which many women connected. Her husband, Godwin, also likely influenced much of her work, for he was a renowned left-wing philosopher himself who believed in anarchism as the best form of government. For the most part, Wollstonecraft is a reliable narrater, offering solid and coherent evidence for her arguments.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: At the turn of the nineteenth century, women did not have many rights in government. Wollstonecraft's piece was published in 1792, some three years after the start of the French Revolution which served as a basis for much of this work. Many other British writers used the French Revolution as a means of creating debates in areas such as representative government to human rights. Many of these British writers actually supported the French Revolution, for it bore many similarities to their own Glorious Revolution in 1688. Most argued that the French Revolution, because it limited the power of the monarchy's power, was a good thing for France. Regardless of this liberalism, however, some were not so keen to societal advances. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord wrote a pamphlet to the National Assembly of France in which he stated that women were better off accepting their limitations and being educated in "the paternal home." Essentially, he argued against the formal education of women. This pamphlet impelled Wollstonecraft to take action and served as inspiration for A Vindication of the Rights of Women.

Summary: The beginning of Wollstonecraft's piece addresses a "what if question," in which Wollstonecraft ponders all of the good things women could accomplish (be physicians, politicians, etc.) if granted a right to education. She then states that intelligence and education last far longer than beauty, and that even after beauty fades, the work created as a result of a solid education will still remain. She says that if men were to grant women this right to education, they would be more faithful mothers and wives (as well as better citizens). She states that the time to educate is now and that "truth must be the same" for both men and women. She says that education will vindicate women from the shackles of servitude and grant them "authority of reason." The conclusion of her argument states that until equality is created, morality will never truly be present. She alleges that if one half of mankind (women) if still chained to a lack of education, then society will never reach its full potential.

Key Quotations: "Would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers--in a word, better citizens."
"There must be more equality established in society, or morality will never gain ground, and this virtuous equality will not rest firmly even when founded on a rock, if one half of mankind be chained to its bottom by fate, for they will be continually undermining it through ignorance or pride."

"The Indictment of Louis XVI"

Author Bio: This excerpt was drafted by Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet, but was meant to be an extension of the opinions of the French people at the time. The charges brought against Louis XVI were not just support by Lindet, in fact, the entire Convention consulted on the charges. Basically, the author of this indictment would be the National Convention. The National Convention would go on to rule France from 1792 to 1795 after the execution of Louis XVI.

Speaker: The people of France are the speakers, however, the charges would be read by the Convention's secretary who is not specified in the excerpt.

Date/Context: The indictment was written in 1792, at one of the most climactic points in the French Revolution. Thus far the revolution had already broken out in 1789 and riots had occurred in Paris over food shortages. On a larger scale, this marks the end of the Age of Absolutism in France, in which the Bourbon family had held power for centuries.

Summary: The people of France accused Louis XVI of committing the following crimes to destroy liberty. The list of charges was as follows: attacking the sovereignty of France by suspending the assembly with violence, using troops to surround the republic while taking away the liberties of individuals, marching an army against Paris that only left after a clear loss, fleeing France while ordering the ministers and state officials not to sign any documents, falsely accepting and subsequently undermining the new constitution, allowing your brothers and allies to rally and only denying them after you knew that they could not harm you, attempting to bribe member of the General Assembly and Constituent, allowing France to become a disgrace, hiring the Swiss guard which fired on the French population first, and causing the flow of French blood.

Key Quotes:
"You caused the blood of Frenchmen to flow."
"Louis, the French people accuses you of having committed a multitude of crimes in order to establish your tyranny by destroying its liberty."

Tuesday, May 19, 2015

"I Think, Therefore I Am"

Author Bio: Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was born in western France, but spent the last twenty years of his life in Holland. He studied law at a Jesuit school in Poitiers. After joining the German Wars, he had a vision for progress whilst being billeted in a German village. His vision was that of the success of all fields of knowledge using the mathematical method. His method of choice was deduction, in which smaller, more specific information could be drawn from a large generalization.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: This excerpt was written in 1637, during the period known as the Scientific Revolution. Basically, after Copernicus wrote his book explaining the heliocentric theory, interest in knowledge and science, which had been present prior to his work, exploded with discoveries. Many of the ideas and concepts are still relevant to. Sir Francis Bacon, in contrast to Descartes, brought forward a method of inductive reasoning while also establishing the Scientific Method still in use today. While there are numerous other examples of individual achievement, it is important to note that this movement was a catalyst in itself. As discoveries occurred, they spurred different branches of scientific inquiry and allowed the field of science and mathematics to grow immensely.

Summary: To begin this excerpt, Descartes states that a state is better government with a few strictly enforced laws than a multitude of relaxed laws. He then names the four precepts of logic that he followed in order to come up with his ideas. The first precept was that he did not accept anything as true if there was the slightest doubt that it might be false. This meant that he rejected most the assumptions that he previously held about the universe. Second, he states that it is pertinent to examine as many parts of a whole as possible in order to see the most detail. The third precept was that he would examine these parts in order of increasing complexity. For example, the most simple concept would be first and the most intricate would be last. Finally, he states that he will omit nothing from his quest for truths, for that would cause inaccuracies in his logic. Next, he states that he is devoted to the research of truth and has rejected everything that he has known to previously be true. Thus, he is only left with the simple truth, "I think, therefore I am." He then delves into the power behind this statement and how a perfect being, not himself, but God, allowed him think this. He finishes his excerpt with the forewarning that reason should prevail above all, for imagination can cause the acceptance of fake or unjust truths in the mind.

Important Quotes:
"I think, therefore I am"

Monday, May 11, 2015

"I Have Made a Beginning of the Work"

Speaker: Sir Francis Bacon was born in 1561 and died in 1626. He was an English scientist consider the father of empiricism. During his life, he attended the University of Cambridge for law and science, worked as a lawyer, was knighted, and honored as a chancellor. He is most famous for the Baconian method, known today as the scientific method. His re-evaluation of scientific philosophy rejected Aristotle's ideas from Ancient Greece. He died of pneumonia without any heirs.

Author Bio: See Above.

Date/Context: This work was written in 1620. This places it in the midst of the Scientific Revolution occurring during the Early Modern Period. Basically, an emphasis was placed on education as many people strove to make advancements in science, math, and other areas. Bacon's work greatly influenced the period, as the scientific method that he devised is still used today. The start of the Scientific Revolution is generally believed to be with the publication of Copernicus's On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres in 1543. This revolution takes part in a greater movement known as the Enlightenment, which was a social movement of the time. This movement placed an emphasis on reason, analysis, and individualism over conventional power in Western Europe.

Summary: Bacon's excerpt states that he focuses purely on the facts of nature, in which he has developed a relationship between empirical and rational thoughts since the division between the two caused confusion. He has looked at both empirical and rational studies to correct their errors and learn from them. And, the states that he learns more from experiments than instruments alone. Experiments are more important for inquiry because they answer questions and create judgments using data without opinions. People that choose to look for reason and information must search for facts in the natural world. To conclude, Bacon states that he has created a foundation for science to build upon using his methods.

Important Quotations:
"And so those twin objects, human knowledge and human power, do really meet in one; and it is from ignorance of causes that operation fails."

Sunday, May 10, 2015

Abdication of Charles V

Authors Bio- Charles the V was the Holy roman emperor and king of Spain (1519 -1556). He was a catholic Christian and the King controlled by Pope. He volunteer to retire in favor of his son Phillip II and brother Ferdinand who later became the holy roman empire. He died after two years of his abdication in 1558. Though always at war, Charles was a lover of peace. "Not greedy of territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, "but most greedy of peace and quiet."[8] Charles abdicated in 1556. The Habsburg Monarchy passed to Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, whereas the Spanish Empire was inherited by his son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of energetic rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery where he died aged 58.



Speaker- See above 


Date and Context- The speech was given in 1556 when Charles was 56 years old and tired from the protest an reformation.

Summary- The speech is what we called a retirement speech from a holy roman emperor. Being tired and  incapable of holding his empire Charles decided to announce his voluntary abdication announcing his brother as the new holy roman emperor and his son Phillip the king of the Spain. In my view the decision of taking retirement is a very diplomat and a wise decision made by Charles which can be determined by his speech. He present himself to people as the follower of God and a Catholic believing the Ideas of church and stating the importance of the follower of the church. The disappointment of protestant reformation could easily determined by the tone of his speech and as he disagree the Martin Luther idea it is confirmed. He describes his struggles and the political consequences that he have to suffered in his time presenting himself as a good leader and as he thanks to people he announces the new holy roman emperor is his brother and the king of Spain will be his son who will serve people as he does.


Key Quotation-" I am determined to retire to spain, to yield my son Phillip the possession of all my states and to my brother the king of all the romans and empire".

Economic Regulation: “The Maxim of All Polite Nations” Sir William Keith (I,510)

Author Bio: Sir William Keith was born in 1699 in Scotland and died in 1749. He served as the lieutenant governor of the colonies of Pennsylvania and Delaware from 1717-1726. He is said to have encouraged a young Benjamin Franklin to create the printing press in Philadelphia, and after William Penn died, he argued with his widow on how run the colony.

Date/Context: Economic Regulation was written in 1740, although there is no pre-reading paragraph to give me further information.

Summary:  Keith begins the document by saying that America should do what is in the best interest of the “Mother State” (Great Britain). Without the Mother State, America would not exist. Because the document is titled “Economic Regulation”, I assume that Keith meant financial responsibilities America owed to Great Britain. He says “...we will proceed to consider some of the obvious regulations on the American trade, for rendering the colonies truly serviceable to Great Britain.” He gives four steps on how best to achieve this. The first step is that all American goods have to pass through Britain’s trade routes first so that they get “first dibs”. The second step states that all wool and linen should be bought from Britain only. The third step says that all American exports must be overlooked by Britain before taking them anywhere else. The fourth step states that are not allowed inter-colony trade.

Key Quotation: “Supposing these things to be done, it will evidently follow that the more extensive the trade of the colonies is, the greater will be the advantages accruing to Great Britain therefrom;...” (page 511)

Tuesday, May 5, 2015

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

Author: King Louis XIV – Ruler of France from 1661 until his death in 1715. He was determined to unify France by creating a centralized government in the capital of France, and additionally eliminated all remnants of feudalism that were left in France. His main focuses were the rediscovery and support of the arts, as well as the expansion of France's territory and success of their economy.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: Prior to the release of this document, Protestants, or Huguenots as referred to in France, were given religious freedom by King Henry IV in 1598. Despite this, King Louis XIV wished to unify the nation under one religion: Catholicism. Therefore, he released to revocation one hundred years later in order to force the unification of France. This reinforced his absolutist authority and complete control over France, allowing the country to succeed as a world power and dominate Europe.

Summary: The document essentially strips the rights of Protestants in France. Louis XIV orders all temples and churches to be demolished, ministers of the religion executed if they do not convert to Catholicism, and for children born into Protestant families to baptized under the Catholic Church. In addition, King Louis XIV forbids the continuance of any practice of Protestantism either publicly or privately. Louis XIV also prohibits any Protestant from leaving France or they risk execution or eternal imprisonment. However, King Louis XIV has granted freedom to any Protestant who avoids all of the previously stated consequences and denies their identification with Protestantism, allowing them to continue their involvement in the country's commerce and politics.

Key Quotations: "Be it known that [with]...our certain knowledge, full power, and royal authority, we have by this present perpetual and irrevocable edict, suppressed and revoked...the edict of our said grandfather, [Henry IV], null and void, together with all concessions...in favor of the said persons of the [Reformed religion]..."

The Efficiency of the Domestic Economy (1664)

Context: This was written in 1664 on trading.  It is a letter to the town Marseilles to encourage trade.  He wants to improve his own country's economy with the help of others. The author of this letter is King Louis XIV of France.  This was written towards the beginning of his monarchy which lasted from 1643 to 1716.  This type of letter was very typical from Louis XIV. His reign is also associated with the greatest age of French culture and art.

Author: Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1643 until his death.

Summarize: This is a letter to the town of Marseilles from King Louis XIV to explain how their foreign and domestic commerce.  They decided to create a council that is devoted to commerce for the revival.  The plan was to set aside livres to be used for manufactures and navigation each year to support the companies of the East and West Indies. They are working to get rid of the  tolls collected on rivers and give money to repair highways instead. Merchants and sea traders will receive subsidies (sum of money) for each ton of merchandise they import or export on the voyages. He explains that he wants the men of Marseilles to participate in commerce.

Quotation: “That there has already been expended more than a million livres for the repair of the public highways, to which we shall also devote our constant attention: that we will assist by money from our royal treasury all those who wish to reestablish old manufactures or to undertake new ones;...”

"The Sighs of Enslaved France"

Author Bio - most likely Pierre Jurieu (1647 - 1713) - a prominent French Calvinist theologian that taught at Sedan from 1674-81; wrote “The Clergy of French Policy” to try to attempt to preserve the rights of Huguenots (French Calvinists); had to leave France in exile due to the King’s anger at his paper; in and after 1681, worked as a pastor of the Walloon Church in Rotterdam, Holland; wrote for the French Reformed Church and aid exiles after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes which originally granted partial freedom to the Huguenots; clearly biased against the king who had removed the Huguenot rights and supported a financial rise in the lower and middle classes. 

Speaker  - See above.

Date/Context: “The Sighs of Enslaved France” was published in 1690 after the revocation of partial religious rights, given in the Edict of Nantes of the French Calvinists or the Huguenots. The King at the time, Louis XIV, drove these numerous critics into exile due to absolute power and his readiness to kill them if he felt it appropriate. Jurieu’s pieces are most notably characterized by an extremely harsh tone towards Louis XIV and for putting the blame on the aforementioned king. 

Summary: The oppression of the lower class of France is caused by, primarily, the excessive amount of taxes on everything in life. There are land taxes and food taxes and taxes that our ancestors could not dream of. These taxes are not just numerous but are also heavy; the French people pay two hundred million in taxes every year and most, if not all, of it will go back to the king and his collectors. Little goes to actually improving the city or the lives of the lower class. These taxes are imposed by an unjust king who passes over any due process of law to set new taxes or raise previous ones. The king’s absurd amount of power allows him to easily confiscate all of the belongings and land of the second most powerful man in France. The royal authority has even gone so far as to require the lower class citizens to buy more salt so that they can pay more taxes. Why should people be charged outrageously high prices for something produced by nature and involves little effort to collect on the part of man? Even “reformers” have simply raised taxes or distributed more to the king. Now, people must not confuse just taxes with unlawful taxes. Just taxes take money and give it to the state for improvements in all aspects of its constituents lives. France’s taxes, or unlawful taxes, take all the money and give it to the king; these two, king and state, have become such conflicting thoughts that it is almost treason to declare one’s support for the state. The king only wishes to flatter himself with these ridiculous taxes; the more flattery he receives, the more joy he squeezes out of everyone else. Statues made of him are always blasphemously honorable and have him standing atop the world in a wholly unrighteous way.

Key Quotations: “The oppression of the people is caused primarily by the prodigious number of taxes and excessive levies of money that are everywhere taken in France.”

“... if we examine the use that is made of these immense sums that are collected with such abuses and extortion, we shall find all the characteristics of oppression and tyranny.”