R&R Article Summary

To wrap up our examination of the Renaissance and the Reformation, please read one of the "What If?" articles OR find and read an article in History Today relating to something discussed in the unit.  After you've read your chosen source, please post your unique reflection as a comment to this blog post.  

Your comment should demonstrate both completion and understanding of the reading AND should also make connections to other learning (in Western Civ. & beyond). (10 points)

Reflection incorporates specific evidence from the article - 5 points
Reflection connects to other learning - 5 points

THE PRAISE OF FOLLY

Author Bio- Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, or simply Erasmus was a Dutch Renaissance Humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher,and theologian.
Born on 27 October, 1446 and Died on 12 July 1536.
Was a classical scholar who wrote in pure latin style.  Amongst humanists, he enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists"; he has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists.Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Protestant Reformation.


Speaker- Erasmus himself 


Date and Context- Essay was written in Latin in 1509 by Erasmus of Rotterdam and first printed in 1511. The essay was inspired by De Triumpho Stultitiae, written by the Italian humanist  Faustino Perisauli, born at Tredozio, near Forli.


Summary-The essay is filled with classical allusions delivered in a style typical of the learned humanists of the Renaissance. Folly parades as a goddess, offspring of Plutus, the god of wealth and a nymph, Freshness. She was nursed by two other nymphs Inerbrition and Ignorance, her faithful companions include Philautia (self-love), Kolkia (flattery), Lethe (forgetfulness), Misoponia (laziness), Hedone (pleasure),Anonia (madness), Tryphe (wantonness) and two gods Komos (intemperance) and Eegretos Hypnos (dead sleep). Folly praises herself endlessly, arguing that life would be dull and distasteful without her. Of earthly existence, Folly pompously states, "you'll find nothing frolic or fortunate that it owes not to me." 


Key Quotation- " The popes of Rome....pretend themselves Christ's vicars; if they would but imitate his exemplary life .... an unintermitted course of preaching attendance with poverty, nakedness, hunger and a contempt of this world;.."

How Many Sins Are Committed In A Day?

Author Bio: Johann Tetzel was a Roman Catholic friar and preacher. He studied at the University of Leipzig and was known for exchanging money for indulgences. These indulgences of the church allowed remission of temporal punishment for a sin, a choice which Martin Luther was opposed to. Tetzel was later condemned from the church for immorality due to several cases of fraud and embezzlement.

Date/Context: This document was written in 1517 during the Renaissance.

Summary: Johann Tetzel is speaking directly to the reader. He begins by saying that the reader should feel blessed for the gifts that God has given them. He reminds the reader that life is a “constant struggle”, and about  “what bonds of sins encompass us.” Tetzel mentions that God is forgiving, and that he saves us through his “divine mercy”. He insists that through means of contrition and confession you will avoid the horrors of Purgatory and find yourself in Heaven. Tetzel tells the reader that after confession and contrition, it takes seven years of penitence to rid yourself of a sin, whether this takes place in life, or in Purgatory. He ponders the question “How many mortal sins are committed in a day, a week, a month, or a year? ” He shares his opinion that all those who commit sins deserve to “suffer the endless punishment in the burning pains of purgatory.” Tetzel encourages the reader to exchange money for indulgences from the church that help you to get rid of your sins and ensure that “your divine and immortal soul goes safe and sound into the land of Paradise?”

Speaker: The speaker is Tetzel himself.

Key Quotation: “Are you not willing, then, for the fourth part of a florin, to obtain these letters, by virtue of which you may bring, not your money but your divine and immortal soul safe and sound into the land of Paradise?”

The Rule of Cosimo d'Medici

Author Bio: Vespasiano was an Italian Humanist and Librarian. He was a dealer in books, and was a well known helping hand in the creation of many famous libraries at the time. He guided Cosimo d'Medici with creating the Laurentian Library. He always helped with distributing the works of classical authors in the Vatican Library. 

Speaker: See Above.

Date/Context: "The Rule of Cosimo d'Medici" focuses on the famous man of Florence, Cosimo d'Medici. Florence is known as the best representation for the Renaissance. Home to many famous scientists, artists, and literary figures, Florence was ruled by one family; Medici. This family would not have achieved such high status, if it had not been for Cosimo d'Medici. With his skills and personality, his family became the bankers of the papacy. 

Summary: At a party, you would most likely catch Cosimo d'Medici talking to other men of very high status. He liked men who knew how to invest in themselves, and never associated with frivolous ones. Cosimo usually discussed important topics; and his high station came from his many "praiseworthy" qualities. Medici could be considered sly, but in a good way. He did not like to cause much attention to himself. If he wanted something, he would go about obtaining it in a way that almost seemed as if it were supposed to happen, through the actions of someone else. His personality is one of the reasons he was very meritorious. Medici was a very patient and kind man who never bad mouthed anyone; he would be angered by those that slandered others. Cosimo could also be considered a "Jack of all trades". He could express his lover for literature with a man of letter, and religion with a theologian. Cosimo di Giovanni d'Medici was a praiseworthy individual, that many people admired. 

Key Quotations:

• "Cosimo di Giovanni d'Medici was of most honorable descent, a very prominent citizen and one of great weight in the republic."
• "So great was his knowledge of all things, that he could find some matter of discussion with men of all sorts.."
• "I once heard Cosimo say that they great mistake of his life was that he did not begin to spend his wealth ten years earlier; because knowing well the disposition of his fellow-citizens, he was sure that, in the lapse of fifty years, no memory would remain of his personality or of his house save the few fabrics he might have built."
• "I know that after my death my children will be in worse case than those of any other Florentine who has died for many years past."

"Constitution" by St. Ignatius of Loyola

Author Bio: The author of “Constitution” is St. Ignatius of Loyola. St. Ignatius of Loyola was a soldier in the Spanish Army until he was injured in the Battle of Pamplona. After the battle he turned to religion and developed an unshakeable relationship with the Pope. He is described as being obedient to the Pope until death. St. Ignatius formed the Society of Jesus for Jesuit priests and became the Society’s first Superior General.

Speaker: See Above

Date/ Context: The “Constitution” was written in 1540 at the time of the formation of the Society of Jesus. This primary document was written to reaffirm that the Jesuits will be faithful to the pope. “Constitution” was written around the time of the Reformation and the Counter- Reformation when their was a divide in the church. During this time St. Ignatius of Loyola emerged as a strong leader in the Counter- Reformation movement along with his Jesuit priests.  

Summary:

St. Ignatius of Loyola is trying to say in the “Constitution” that society is built through the Church and through Jesus Christ. He goes on to say that if you are part of society you must believe and have unshakable faith in the Roman pontiff, the pope. In the second half of his “Constitution”, St. Ignatius is referring to the Society of Jesus that he has created. The Society of Jesus is a society of holy roman catholics that call themselves Jesuits. Jesuits are held to slightly higher standards than normal priests are are suppose to be all faithful to the pope and to God. St. Ignatius states that if a person is a member of his society he should have unshakable faith in God and the Roman pontiff as well as teach and spread the word of Jesus. He states that members of the Society should without question or excuse go wherever it is deemed necessary by Ignatius or the pope and teach by spreading the word of God.

Quotes:  

“... We are pledged to obey without evasion or excuse, instantly, so far as in us lies, whether he send us to the Turks or any other infidels…”

“All the members shall realize, and shall revall daily, as long as they live, that this society as a whole and in every part is fighting for God under faithful obedience to one most holy lord, the pope, and to other Roman pontiffs who succeed him.”

Scholarship and Art: Leon Battista Alberti

Author Bio: Leon Battista Alberti’s ideas are present in the article. However, Giorgio Vasari actually wrote the article. He was an italian painter, architect, writer, and historian.

Context: Vasari shares Alberti's ideas on scholarship and art and then goes on to reflect back on how Alberti exemplified his ideas. Vasari lived from 1511-1572. Alberti lived from 1404-1472 and was a humanist, architect, and the principal initiator of Renaissance art theory. He is considered to have been the closest to being a "universal man" before Leonardo DaVinci for his deep involvement in both the arts and the sciences. In this excerpt, Vasari reflects Alberti's ideas that science and learning is essential for one to have advantages, especially for the artist. The unity and execution of science in art, he believed, was paramount to success. He used the concepts of science in order to better his artistic endeavors.

Summary: Vasari begins by using the words of Leon Battista Alberti. Alberti begins by explaining that the sciences and education are of great advantage to everyone, but especially artists. The sciences provide the knowledge needed in order to perfect creations of the painter, the sculptor, and the architect. Likewise, being a "learned man" or a man of science gives the artist far more credit than he would have on his own. By being educated, the scholar and the artist have much more influence in the community and when they put their knowledge to practice. Then Vassari begins to use his own language of personal speaking. He says that this idea of combining science/education and art is no better personified that in Alberti. Alberti studied Latin and science as well as architecture, perspective, and painting. He wrote several books that increased his fame and reputation.

Key Quote: "For the service, security, honor, and ornament of the public, we are exceedingly obliged to the architect; to whom, in time of leisure...in time of business...The whole of the human species, was most obliged to the architect, or rather, inventor of all conveniences."

The Ninety-five Thesis

Author Bio: Martin Luther. Born in Germany in 1483, Martin Luther became one of the most influential figures in Christian history when he began the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. He called into question some of the basic tenets of Roman Catholicism, and his followers soon split from the Roman Catholic Church to begin the Protestant tradition.

Speaker: See Above

Date & Context:1517, First principles of the reformation. This is about a man trying to stop the sale of indulgences.

Summary: Martin Luther wrote this as a protest against the selling of indulgences, And about how buying these indulgences gives people false hope. Also that what they were selling these indulgences for was wrong. He is also a man of god as you can tell by some of the things he says and also how he ends his intro with "In the name of lord Jesus Christ Amen". 

Important Quote: "The Pope has neither the power nor will to remit any penalties except those which he has imposed by his own authority".

Georg, Johann. “When Alexander Met Thalestris.” History Today Jan. 2015: 11-17. Print.

The article by Johann Georg summarizes in a few pages the dedication of Thalestris attempting to meet and find Alexander the Great of Macedon. Thalestris is said to be from Greece. She had a mission; that was to bring three hundred women, find Alexander in hope to breed a race of children as strong and brilliant as he. Details show that Thalestris traveled thirty five days through hostile territories in order to have a child by king Alexander. The distance of the trek outlined above would be about six to seven hundred miles.  Although this tale is quite skeptical, historians do in fact believe that someone had this same goal and carried out their actions in attempting this plan.

Spiritual Exercises

Author Bio:  Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556 CE) emerged in the counter reformation period as a prominent religious leader. His strong, catholic teachings pushed complete obedience to the Pope. In fact, historians credit him most for his foundation of the Society of Jesus; a society which consists of a male congregation for the catholic church and strengths the teachings of Jesus. Even though Ignatius’s heritage is Spanish (Local Basque) and not Roman, he eventually moved around Europe after he fought in the Battle of Pamplona. His injury in this battle catalyzed his religious conversion and encouraged his active involvement in the church. Finally, after all of his contributions, his life ended in Rome.

Speaker: Ignatius of Loyola: see previous description above.

Date/Context: Ignatius wrote this set of obligations  in 1548 around the peak of the Renaissance to regain stability in the Catholic Church. Since this occurred fairly soon after the sack of Rome, the Protestant  Reformation left the Catholic Church in shambles with very few strong leaders. Ignatius filled this void after his conversion and made these straight forward rules in order to gain more credibility for the church from common citizens.

Summary: This short list of rules was set by Ignatius for the Society of Jesus and common Catholic Church followers. These 10 obligations and limitations enforce the complete devotion to christ through the church. For instance, the document commands its readers to obey the Church because it is the voice of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. It also commands followers to admit their sin and vow a life of chastity, poverty, (of course) unfailing obedience. In addition, it asks the people to never question the credibility of the church. Moreover since the members of the church and this society have pledged to god, they must therefore be the eyes and ears of go in the community. They must right the wrongs and evils that they see in order to maintain their complete allegiance to the church. When reading this document, it is extremely important to keep in mind the bias that Ignatius inserts because he is a passionate founder of this organization. Also, remember that at this time the Catholic Church was quickly losing stability and credibility. These exercises could be a call to the common citizens and an effort to gain more followers because of its presentation in the vernacular.

Key Quotations:

• “Always to be ready to obey with mind and heart, setting aside all judgment of one's own, the true spouse of Jesus Christ, our holy Mother our infallible and orthodox mistress, the catholic Church, whose authority is exercised over us by the hierarchy.”
• “To uphold especially all the precepts of the Church. and not censure them in any manner”

Salvation Through Faith Alone

Author: Martin Luther was a monk who eventually became a reformer when he discovered God and faith and had a supposed spiritual awakening. He is the one that really began the Protestant Reformation, upon realizing that humans are naturally sinful, and no amount of praying or practicing of faith would admit you to the Kingdom of Heaven. Rather, it was through the righteousness of God and was his gift, which is what this document is all about.

Speaker: See above

Context: Though the document was not actually dated, I know that it was sometime during the early 16th century when Martin Luther was beginning the Protestant Reformation, seeing as though it is about his enlightenment. So this document is about a time prior to him publishing his Ninety-five Theses, which will affect him in this document seeing as though he had to struggle to "break from the norm" to find salvation from that which was troubling him before.

Summary: Martin Luther began as a monk. He went against the will of his father to join the monastery, who tried to put guilt on him, even going as far as to say “Don’t you know that you ought to honor your father?” Martin Luther then goes into a memory from his time as a monk, where the prayers would basically drive him crazy. But it was God who saved him from the “torment of prayers”.  When thinking of the words “righteousness of God,” his conscience rang loudly and he feared punishment from God. However, after much thought, he realized that salvation is God’s mercy and thus eased his conscience and brightened his spirit. He was no longer afraid of the “righteousness of God” because it was that righteousness that saved, not punished. God led Martin Luther out of his torment, showed him the way to understanding and to cleanse his mind/ease his conscience. It was God and faith that led him to true salvation.

Key Quotations: “…I soon came to the conclusion that if we, as righteous men, ought to live from faith and if the righteousness of God should contribute to the salvation of all who believe, then salvation won’t be our merit but God’s mercy.”

“For it’s by righteousness of God that we’re justified and saved through Christ.”

THE IMPERIAL ARMY

Authors Bio- Titus Flavius Josephus  born Joseph ben Matityahu was a first-centuryROMANIO JUES scholar,Historian  and Hagiographer, who was born in Jerusalem then part of Roman Judea—to a father of Priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry.


Speaker- See above

Date/Context-The Roman Empire "Army of the Romans" is a term encompassing the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the Roman kingdom  (to c. 500 BC), the Roman Republic (500–31 BC), the Roman Empire (31 BC – 395/476 AD). It is thus a term that spans approximately 2,000 years, during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in composition, organization, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions


Summary-The Imperial army of Rome is proved to be the best army of the ancient Rome. This passage is surrounded around the discipline, training, and abilities of Roman soldiers. This passage shows how people or soldiers are motivated to their countries and ready to sacrifice their life. It tell us about the how soldiers of the imperial army get trained and chosen from the country men. The strength of the imperial army was way more then calculated now and because of the army, Rome never get surprisingly attacked by the enemies.


Key Quotation- " The outer walls and all the installations within are completed more quickly than thought, so numerous and skilled are the workmen".

Precepts of Power

Author Bio: Nicholas Machiavelli was a humanist, politician, writer, historian, diplomat, and philosopher in Florence, Italy from 1469-1527. He was one of the founders of political science, specifically, political ethics. He worked as a diplomat in Florence during the time when the Medici family was exiled from the city. His most famous work, The Prince, underlines the importance of a harsh ruler. Machiavelli's tactics, today, are generally identified with immoral and unethical actions.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Italian city-states lacked the unity of larger nation-states like France, thus, putting them at a great disadvantage. Also, the papal authority warred with the Italian city-states over secular and spiritual issues. The Church actually condemned Machiavelli's methods as the work of Satan.

Summary: This primary document is composed of excerpts from the most important parts of The Prince. The first section, "On Those Who Hae Become Princes by Crime," focuses on those who have come into power using force. He recommends that pain/suffering be administered all at once, while good things be distributed in parts. A prince should also maintain a relationship with his subjects that does not allow for the interference of unforeseen events with his ultimate goal. The second second, "On Cruelty and Mercy," hones in on the use of force in order to gain respect or cause fear. He argues that it is better to be feared than loved because men will be loyal to a man they love only until danger approaches. However, the prince should make himself feared in a way that does not cause hatred; justification for actions that cause fear must always be present. The final excerpt, "How a Prince Should Keep His Word," covers the topic of integrity. Machiavelli emphasizes the use of rationalization as both a man and a beast. At times, a prince will need to act as a fox, other times a lion. On the other hand, a man always need a legitimate reason to break any type of promise. Additionally, how a prince is seen by most people plays a role in his popularity. As long as more people see him, they will convince the majority of their opinions, rather than those that actually perceive his ill or misleading intentions.

Key Quotations:
"You must know there are two means of fighting:one according to the laws, the other with force; the first way is proper to man, the second to beasts; but because the first, in many cases, is not sufficient, it becomes necessary to have recourse to the second."

"The Profession of Faith"

Author Bio - Pope Pius IV (1499 - 1565) - known for reform and a cleansing of the excessiveness of past popes; from a less wealthy family but went through school and earned his doctorate at 26; slowed down the the Inquisition; attempted to establish healthy relations with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire; reconvened the Council of Trent in 1562 after a 10-year break where he attempted to set the Catholic church on a definite path in the face of Protestant opposition; reignited Church’s spark for the arts and learning; expanded the Church’s influence in Rome; put Cardinal Carafa and the duke of Palino on trial for starting the war with Spain, and Pius’ public opinion suffered; raising of taxes provoked an assassination attempt in 1564.

Speaker - The question of speaker for “The Profession of Faith” is rather complicated. Pope Pius IV originally authored the profession; the Council of Trent told the Roman Catholic Church to adhere to it; and it started to be spoken at mass. So, while the Pope had a council of religious leaders follow the profession, the Roman Catholic Church decided to continue the profession. Most likely though, the speaker is the Council of Trent which was composed of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church at the time, for if they had not spoken it and enforced it, the church could not have done the same.

Date/Context: The second part of the Council of Trent took place during 1562-1563 as Pope Pius IV watched over and guided the proceedings. This was the time “The Profession of Faith” was spoken. Considering that the Ninety-Five Theses were published in 1517, the Council, and subsequently the profession, was a response to the exodus of people leaving the Roman Catholic Church and joining the Protestants. It attempted to firmly state the Church’s beliefs and goals to offer guidelines for future generations. It is written in the first person (changed to third person in the summary), for it was to be said by all members of church similar to an oath. It is read like a list of beliefs that are to be adopted.

Summary: The body and blood of Christ is given unto the people in the sacrament of the Eucharist through bread and wine respectively. Purgatory is place where souls go after death to receive help from the faithful before ascending to Heaven. The saints deserve to be prayed to. Any image of either Jesus or his mother Mary are to be kept in the highest esteem and regard. The Roman Catholic Church is the mother of all churches, and the Pope has say over its course of events. The people shall accept everything stated in the Council of Trent.

Key Quotations: “I recognize the Holy Catholic an Apostolic Roman Church as the Mother and mistress of all churches: and I... swear true obedience to the Roman Pontiff...”

“I accept and profess… the traditions, definitions and declarations… of the holy Council of Trent.”

Predestination

Author Bio: John Calvin (1509-1564) was a convert to Lutheranism and because of his religion, was exiled from France. In the 1530s, he settled in Geneva, Switzerland, where about a decade later he established a theocratic society. He adhered strictly to biblical authority and defined the church as "a society of all the saints, a society spread over the whole world, and existing in all ages, yet bound together by the one doctrine and the one Spirit of Christ." He strongly believed that in order to have God as one's father, one must have the Church as one's mother. Figuratively, this means that he strongly valued the power of the church and disliked its move away from the so-called society of saints it sought to serve. John Calvin no doubt expressed bias in his predisposition for Calvinism over Lutheranism.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: Predestination was written in 1536 when Calvin was in his twenties. He took much inspiration from Lutheranism, but went a step beyond and stressed predestination, or the belief that one's salvation is unchangeable and based solely on the will of God. Calvinism, the ultimate name for Calvin's ideals, became very popular in the Netherlands and Scotland as well as in colonial America, where it formed the basic tenets of Puritanism. This movement was probably influenced by the authority of the Roman Catholic Church's reach in Switzerland, but Calvin rejected this.

Summary: Calvin starts the document by stating that men are not equal but that all are subject to God's purpose. He says that it is God's will entirely to deny life in heaven to some and to grant it to others. No matter how hard man tries to escape this, and no matter how unfair it may be, God's will is final. He attests to the scripture proving his beliefs and states that salvation comes to only a select few. At the end, he concludes by saying that all those who oppose him are wrong in their reasoning.

Key Quotations: "The covenant of life is not preached equally to all, and among those to whom it is preached, does not always meet with the same reception."
"All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestined to life or to death..."

The Glory of the City

Author Bio: Strabo was a Greek historian, geographer, and philosopher. Strabo was known for his travels around the known world.  His travels took him from Tuscany to Ethiopia. After his travels he then moved to Rome One of Strabo's major work is almost completely lost to time but is referenced by himself and other classical authors. Historians assume that he died around 24 AD.

Date/Context: While Strabo was in Rome he could of had time to learn and understand the Roman architecture allowing him to write these paragraphs in this article.

Summary: This article was mostly written about the Roman architecture. A lot of the article was based around the idea of the Romans creating rode that allowed safe travel for merchants and transportation. He then talk about how the past generations did not take there time to make Rome beautiful but the current and near generation did. By the end of this article he talks about a Mausoleum built for Augustus and his family.

Key Quotation: "--each successive work causing you speedily to forget that which you have seen before" (Strabo 235) This statement show to me that everything in Rome to a well traveled man was more beautiful then the last and the beauty of Roman architecture never stopped.

The Plague in France

Author Bio: Jean de Venette was raised from a peasant family, but went on to become very well educated. He studied and mastered theology at the University of Paris. He's provided great and valuable information about the political and religious life of the 14th century. His documentation of the Black Plague has given many an "intimate" understanding of the epidemic. 

Speaker: See above. 

Date/Context: "The Plague in France" is written by Jean de Venette, and takes place in 14th century France during the Black Plague. The document discusses the spread of the plague, its impact on the French, and the after math. 

Summary: From 1348-1349, France was hit with a deadly disease; The Black Plague. The disease was called an Epidemic because of how it spread. It is said to have started in Italy, then to France, through Spain, and eventually to Germany. Signs of the disease were large swellings on the groin or armpits. Many people on the brink of death, confessed all their sins. Pope Clement VI blessed many men, giving them of being blessed and their sins forgotten before they died. Many men left their inheritances to churches, mainly because they all had lost their heirs and children to the plague. It was said that the disease was spreading through tainted water. As a result of this, Jews were automatically blamed. Many were massacred and slaughtered, and some were burned. After the Epidemic, many towns were left nearly vacant. Many men and women married and had children. Children born were said to had have a total of 22 teeth. Which was odd for people because men usually had a total of 32. Jean de Venette discussed how this could be a result from the actual disease, and how a whole population was nearly wiped out. After the plague, it seemed as though people cherished their belongings, and even buy abundances of them.

Key Quotations: 

• "The people of France and of almost the world were struck by a blow other than war."
• "...the mortality of men and women,...was so great that it was almost to bury the dead."
• "Nor was there anyone who died without confessing his sins and receiving the holy viaticum."
• "...the Jews were suddenly and violently charged with infecting wells and water and corrupting the air."
• "With this diminution in the number of teeth signified I wonder greatly; unless it be a new era resulting from the destruction of one human generation by the plague and its replaceemt nu another."

Innocent Chooses the Holy Roman Emperor

Author Bio: Pope Innocent III (1161 CE - 1216 CE) – born as Lotario dei Conti di Segni in Anagni. Reigned as Pope from 1198 until his death. His main goal as the pope was to once again gain power amongst Europe. Claimed supremacy over the Christian regimes throughout Europe. Was the central supporter of the Catholic Church during the time. Utilized manipulation and interdict to allow princes to obey him. Called for the crusades against Muslim Spain in order to gain revenge upon their previous obtention of Jerusalem, as well as the Cathars in southern France.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: At the time of this, King Henry VI had died unexpectedly. He previously hoped his son, Frederick II, would take over in due time. However, by his death, Frederick II was just 4 years old and therefore unfit to fulfill the duties of king. Instead, Innocent was given guardianship over Frederick and utilized this to gain the papacy power once again. By the time of this speech, the papacy was at the height of its power, and Pope Innocent III was considered to be one of the most powerful men in Europe. He was able to assert absolute spiritual authority while still keeping the authority of the kings.

Summary: In this passage, Pope Innocent III discusses the transition of power the Roman Empire. It was previously transferred to Rome from Greece, coordinated by the papacy in order to protect those of the church. Therefore, the pope crowns the new king of the Roman Empire. Innocent decides that, following Emperor Henry VI's death, his son Frederick II who was 4 years old was not fit to become ruler of the empire. In addition, all princes were to choose a suitable ruler in accordance to the papacy's views. However, they were unable to make a decision on the ruler. The papacy wished to no longer wait, and therefore chose Otto, Duke of Brunswick, as the new emperor. They justified this by stating that Otto was devout to the church and possessed ancestors on both sides. They say that Otto will awarded the crown once the rights of the Roman church have been secured.

Key Quotation: "It is the business of the pope to look after the interests of the Roman empire, since the empire derives its origin and final authority from the papacy..."

"Innocent Protects His Realm (1216)"

Author Bio: Pope Innocent III lived from 1160 CE to 1216 CE. He is considered to be one of the most powerful popes because of his part in the crusades as well as his influence over the kings of Europe. Pope Innocent III is noted for organizing Christian crusades against Spain, the Holy Land, and Constantinople.

Speaker: See above

Date/ Context: “Innocent Protects His Realm” was written by Pope Innocent III in 1216 as a message to the people of England. Just before the message was written there had been several small rebellions and protests against the King of England (John). At this time in history the King of England had good relations with the pope, leader of the Catholic Church.

Summary: In this primary document, Pope Innocent III is speaking to the people of England about their king. The people of England are angry at their king for alleged conspiracy and abusive use of power. The people then, according to this document, conspired against the king. Pope Innocent III tells the people not to be angry at their king and to stop conspiring against their leader. Innocent says that if the people wish to raise a concern to King James they should approach him with respect and reverence. The pope also states that the church and the king have no quarrel therefore the people should forgive their king and rejoice in the fact that their king and church are united in leading them.

Key Quotes: “By our apostolic authority we hereby dissolve all conspiracies and confederacies that have been made since the quarrel between the crown and the church began…”

“And thus you yourselves may rejoice to know that he has changed for the better, and on this account you and your heirs may serve him and his successors more prominently and devotedly.”

Caesar"s Reforms

Author Bio: Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus more well known as Suetonius was a Roman Historian. He was born around 49 or 50 in a province of Africa. Suetonius was able to become an author through his fathers social class and his friends power. He was able to write a famous book that was about 12 Roman rulers.

Date/Context: Suetonius was able to watch from the side of the Caesar and think of what they did out side of the role of royalty.

Summary: This article from Suetonius was written about the reforms that took place to create Rome. The first paragraph states that Caesar created the calendar we had today with 365 days and adding one day every four years. He then states how he filled vacancies in the senate with half voted by the people and half on his own accord. Later he talks about how Caesar did not remove debt but only made the debtors pay the price of what they owe before the civil war. He then spends the last paragraph talking about how Caesar constructed beautiful architect and new roads.

Key Quotation: "All these enterprises and plans were cut short by his death" (Suetonius 170) This is a key quotation showing that even with all the great thing he did some where cut off to nothing because of his death.

The Responsibilities of Kingship, John of Salisbury (I, 333)

Author Bio: John of Salisbury was born in 1120, England, United Kingdom and died in October 25, 11Author Bio: John of Salisbury was born in 1120, England, United Kingdom and died in October 25, 1180, Chartres, France. He served as an advisor to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket. The Archbishop was well known for his defiance to King Henry II, and as a result he was murdered. Salisbury dedicated a book he wrote to Becket in 1159.

Date/Context: The document was written somewhere in between 1120 and 1180, and may be taken from Statesman’s Book which he wrote in 1159.

Summary: This document seems as though it is a guide directed at princes who are about to become kings. It encourages the idea that princes are entitled to all the privileges that he believes he deserves, and that anyone who goes against his own wills goes against those of God. It also mentions that princes who are to be kings should not feel bad or take offence to the idea that their “enactments of justice” are second to those of God. The author states that his staff should be used to “restore irregularities and false departures” as he rules his kingdom. His shield should be used to protect the weak, and that “his power is chiefly exercised against those who desire to do harm.” The prince will receive a sword from the church at his coronation, and the prince will be considered “a minister of priestly power.” The document also mentions that the place of the head in the body of the commonwealth is filled by the prince.

Key Quotation:

“The power the prince has is therefore from God...” “Who, therefore, resists the ruling power, resists the ordinance of God.” (page 333)

To His Love Afar

Author Bio:  Jaufre Rudel (died around 1147 CE) - Rudel, a slightly ambiguous character in the middle ages, contributed to the citizens remodeled view of women and their role in society. Since he was not a very prominent character in the middle ages, historians can only vaguely account for his lifespan and whereabouts. As for his occupations, he acted as the prince of Baye and a troubadour, but his most notable benefaction were his poems. Only seven lasted through the years, but they present the new wave of thinking that took the middle ages by storm.

Speaker: Rudel: see previous description above,

Date/Context: This time period (about 1100 CE) is best characterized by the struggle to define woman's role in society. Some still believed that women were vices of the devil and they used tempting tactics to spread evil. However, the greater push at this time gave women more respect and sometimes a higher level of authority than men. This movement was significantly catalyzed by the age of chivalry, where knights fought for the woman waiting for them on a pedestal. For instance, the knights of the crusades defended their lands to protect the women that stayed in England. These women were their “faithful” love afar.

Summary: In this short poem, Rudel takes on the persona of a common knight who is away in battle thinking about his woman waiting at home. He fantasizes about seeing her and proposing to her. Then he shows the reader that he believes his fantasies are just fantasies, because it is god's will for him to never return. He does not even know if she loves him, but he does not want to give up on loving her because she is his motivation to keep on fighting. In the end of the passages, he begs god to change his destiny and the ways of traditional life. He is angry that god as made love and honor so difficult to maintain because he feels that he can’t have both.

Key Quotations:

• “I shall not see her, for her land and mine are sundered, and the ways are hard to find, so many ways, and I shall lose my way. So wills it god”
• “God curse him among men- That I should love and not till I be dead, be loved again.”

A christian Defense

Author bio: Tertullian c.160-230 c.e. , A christian writer, who was trying to explain christianity to Pagans.

Date/Context: 2nd and 3rd century in the roman empire, ( how were christains treated in this time during the roman empire)

Summary: A christian writer, speaking to pagans who is trying to make christianity look great. He is very much trying to get the people to convert to christianity, you can tell by the way he idolizes it.
He is basically trying to clear the christian name of all that has been placed on it. he also uses the empire ( their people ) to say that they feel the same way as them.

Key Quotation: "Let the truth reach your ears by the private and quiet avenue of literature"

Feudal Obligations

Author: Bishop Fulbert of Chartres was the bishop of Chartres from 1006 to 1028. He was a teacher at the Cathedral school there. Chartres is a commune in France, located about sixty miles southwest of Paris.

Context: Feudalism has allocated power within itself. The King is above all, and the other classes fall under the King. Some historians believe it is the dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.

Summary: Bishop Fulbert writes a letter to Duke William of the Aquitanians. Fulbert states in his letter that anyone who swears loyal to his lord shall be granted these six things in memory: what is harmless, safe, honorable, useful, easy, and practical. Along with saying that, he says that the vassals shall not be injurious to him in his secrets. Also a vassal should always look to help his lord.

Key Quotations: “However, that the faithful vassal should avoid these injuries is proper, but not for this does he deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to abstain from evil, unless what is good is done also.”

"The Theory of Edward Gibbon"

Author Bio: Edward Gibbon (1737 CE - 1794 CE) - potentially the single most famous historian of the 1700’s; a prime model of the Enlightenment era; known for a story telling style; one of the founding fathers of history as a profession. After discovering Catholicism, his father forcing him back to study Calvinism, and a reluctant return to the Protestant faith, Gibbon held a strong distaste for religion.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: Written during the Enlightenment period, a time where the use of reason prospered; the first volume appeared in 1776 and the last in 1787; a rather controversial book due to its blame on religion in a highly religious time; when a comprehensive, fact-filled theory was not available for Rome’s fall, his theory shone through by being both comprehensive and using many sources.

Summary: Gibbon’s major assertion is that Christianity played a major part in the fall of the Roman Empire. For example, the church preached peace far too much for an empire so large, and all military sprit was gone. Also, the wealth went to charity instead of taxes or an army, and the state became distracted with theological disputes rather than conquering lands or preventing the invasion of more pertinent enemies. People persecuted due to the new religion became domestic issues, threatening the stability of the Roman empire. However, religion impacted the Romans in a myriad of beneficial ways as well. Christianity taught many to obey a lawful emperor, and the Bible helped many soldiers, however often used, keep faith with their leaders and not fear death. It also served to placate some barbarians to the North therefore potentially delaying Rome’s fall. Constantine's religious conversion, and the following Edict of Toleration, both helped and hurt the Roman fall.

Key Quotation: “… the church, and even the state, were distracted by religious factions… the attention of the emperors was diverted from camps to [church] synods…”

“If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of [the Emperor] Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors.”

Unam Santam

Author Bio: Pope Boniface VIII was the papal authority from 1294-1303. He is most remembered because of his feuds with the king of France. After Pope Boniface VIII died, the end of papal supremacy occurred.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: This document comes from the Late Middle Ages (early thirteenth century). During this time, there was a struggle between church and state. Prior to Pope Boniface's rise to power, there had already been dissension, which was beaten down by Pope Innocent III without mercy. Kings, especially in France, were beginning to speak out against the Church's growing lust for complete control.

Summary: Unam Sanctum establishes various points about the Catholic church. First, various Bible passages rectify the Church's need for unity. He then decreed that all temporal and spiritual power was under the pope's jurisdiction. He also establishes the papal authority (descendants of Peter) as the ruler of all humans that wish to follow God. He goes on to say that spiritual power rests within the Church, while temporal power rests with the kings and is to be permitted by the Church for the kings to use.

Key Quotations:
"Therefore, of the one and only Church there is one body and one head, not two heads like a monster."

"Leadership of Alexander"

Author Bio: Arrain (c. 95-180) notable officer of the Roman army and historian of Alexander the Great’s campaigns. Arrain is known for his accounts of the battles and leadership of Alexander the Great. He is also well known for his descriptions of the people of India and maps of Ancient geography. “The Leadership of Alexander” was written as part of a larger collection called Anabasis.

Speaker: See Above

Date/ Context: This primary document was written while Alexander was conquering India sometime between 326 and 323 BCE. This document was written just before Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE. During this time Alexander and his men were seeking to conquer  Northwest India thousands of miles away from their homes in Greece. Many historians believe that this conquests rationale was for Alexander the Great to occupy the entire known world.

Summary: This primary document begins with the speaker, Arrain, describing Alexander the Great and his army marching through a desert, which is known to be in present day India. The speaker then goes on to describe how Alexander and his men were parched with thirst. Alexander marches ahead of his men showing his leadership and resolve to move on. Arrain then tells the reader that a small contingent of Alexander’s men found water, put it in a helmet, and gave it to their leader. Alexander in turn then took the helmet and dumped the water into the ground. Arrain then says that this was an act of genius and proof of his unshakeable leadership.   

Key Quotation: “Alexander, with a word of thanks for the gift, took the helmet, and, in full view of his troops, poured the water on the ground (133).” “...it was a proof, if anything was, not only of his power of endurance, but also of his genius for leadership (133).”

The Reforms of Lycurgus, Plutarch (I, 76)

Author Bio: Plutarch was a historian, biographer, and essayist. He was born in Chaeronea, Greece in 45 A.D. and died in Delphi, Greece in 120 A.D. He was educated at Platonic University and had three children.  He came from a wealthy family, so that may explain the slight irritation with the Spartans for looking down upon lives of luxury, and making the idea seem “dainty” and “effeminate” favoring the idea that everyone should live equally with one another and there should be no such thing as rich or poor.

Speaker: See above.

Date/Context: This document is set in the period of 1200-1500 b.c. It is centered around Sparta, one of several city-states in Greece.

Summary:This document gives a solid overview of daily life in Sparta for children and adults. It first begins with an introduction to Lycurgus, who was the leader of Sparta in the late seventh century. He had a strict way of running the military and replaced all money with iron pieces, rather than gold and silver. He rid Sparta of any kind of luxury, including jewelry, fortune tellers, and excess indulgences of any kind. Lycurgus made everyone in Sparta equal to one another. The next section discusses Spartan discipline. When you had a child you were required to bring it to certain officials who would decided if the baby was healthy and would make a good addition to society. At age seven, the child would be enrolled in certain programs under a strict regimen. At twelve, the children were treated much more harshly and were taught to steal, and if they were caught in the act, it was considered shameful and they were mercilessly whipped.  They were also taught to speak in as few words as possible, using little conversation to get their point across.

Key Quotation:

“But in the late seventh century, Sparta, under the leadership of Lycurgus,adopted a rigid military system that produced one of the most efficient and feared armies in antiquity.” (page 77)

The Transition from Republic to Principate

Author Bio: Publius Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56 - ca. 117) – Senator and historian to the Roman Empire. Major works discuss and analyze the reign of previous emperors the span from the death of Augustus (AD 17) to the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 70). Analyzes the art of war and secure military communications. Lived in what is known as the Silver Age of Latin Literature. Often noted for his insights into the psychology of power politics.

Speaker: See above

Date/Context: The principate is considered the first era of the Roman Empire, extending from the reign of Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century. The principate is characterized by a concerted effort on the part of the emperors to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance of the Roman Republic. Tacitus, a renowned orator, utilized his rhetorical gifts in his historical accounts. This particular speech was given during the European War. The whole meaning of the speech was to give an overlook on the war and the things that it resulted under the leadership of Augustus.

Summary: This excerpt discusses how Augustus blinded the people of the empire through bribery. As a result, he was beloved by the entire population. While soldiers died, nobles rose higher up the ladder of wealth, and it did not seem to bother anyone. Although outside provinces distrusted the Senate and the citizens, the empire itself was at peace because of the newly rising generation that did not experience the tragedies of the civil war during the years of the Republic. There was mass inequality, yet the public was content, and therefore Augustus stayed in power.

Key Quotation: “Stripped of equality, all looked up to the commands of a sovereign without the least apprehension for the present, while Augustus in the vigour of life, could maintain his own position, that of his house, and the general tranquility.” (177)

The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont

Author Bio: Robert the Monk (d. 1122) was a notable chronicler of the First Crusade. Although relatively obscure in many respects, Robert the Monk remains famous for detailing Pope Urban II's speech at the Council of Clermont. Although he writes the account as though he were there, recent historical accounts reveal that Robert the Monk wrote this in 1116, some twenty-one years afterwards. Although highly romanticized due to hindsight of the war, Robert the Monk's work still gives perspective to the time era.

Speaker: Pope Urban II (1042 - 1099) was Pope from 1088 to his death eleven years later. Notably, he is responsible for establishing the modern-day Roman Curia as a means to run the church. He also is remembered for launching the First Crusades (1096-1099) as an attempt to recapture the Holy Lands from the Muslims of the East.

Date/Context: There are five contemporary accounts of Pope Urban II's speech at Clermont, but this particular version by Robert the Monk is credible and shows Urban's justification for launching the First Crusade starting in 1096. The Crusade lasted three years and ended when the crusaders set up several Christian territories.

Summary: The document begins with a short description of how Urban II spoke to a council in Clermont, Auvergne, France, and then proceeded to give in a speech in the town square to the townspeople. Then, Robert the Monk quotes (or attempts to quote) what the Pope said. Urban II starts his talk by referencing God and saying that the people of Persia, "enemies of God" had taken over a tract of land so large that it took months to travel across. He describes the horrors felt by persecuted Christians (women and children) in the region as well and states that it is the duty of these townspeople to seek revenge and save their brethren. He urges that the people of Christ stop their internal quarreling and go out to save their brothers and sisters. To conclude his speech, Urban II states, "Whenever you meet the enemy in battle, you shall all cry out, 'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!'"

Key Quotation: "Set out on the road to the holy sepulchre, take the land from that wicked people, and make it your own... This land our Savior made illustrious by his birth, beautiful with his life, and sacred with his suffering; he redeemed it with his death and glorified it with his tomb... Set out on this journey and you will obtain the remission of your sins and be sure of the incorrigible glory of the kingdom of heaven."